RMS Titanic
RMS Titanic departing Southampton on 10 April 1912. |
Career ( United Kingdom) |  White Star Line |
| Name: | RMS Titanic[1] |
| Owner: |  White Star Line[1] |
| Port of registry: |  [2] Liverpool |
| Route: | Southampton to New York City |
| Ordered: | 31 July 1908[1] |
| Builder: | Harland and Wolff, Belfast[1] |
| Yard number: | 401[3] |
| Laid down: | 31 March 1909[1] |
| Launched: | 31 May 1911[1] |
| Christened: | Not christened |
| Completed: | 31 March 1912 |
| Maiden voyage: | 10 April 1912[3] |
| In service: | 1912[1] |
| Identification: | Radio Callsign "MGY"
UK Official Number: 131428[4] |
| Fate: | Sank on 15 April 1912 after hitting an iceberg in middle of Atlantic Ocean[1] |
| General characteristics |
| Class and type: | Olympic-class ocean liner[3] |
| Tonnage: | 46,328 gross register tons (GRT)[1] |
| Displacement: | 52,310 tons[3] |
| Length: | 882 ft 9 in (269.1 m)[5] |
| Beam: | 92 ft 0 in (28.0 m)[5] |
| Height: | 175 ft (53.3 m) (Keel to top of funnels) |
| Draught: | 34 ft 7 in (10.5 m)[1] |
| Depth: | 64 ft 6 in (19.7 m)[5] |
| Decks: | 9 (Lettered A through G) |
| Installed power: | |
| Propulsion: | - Two bronze triple-blade wing propellers
- One bronze quadruple-blade centre propeller.
|
| Speed: | |
| Capacity: | Passengers and crew (fully loaded):
Staterooms (840 total):
- First Class: 416
- Second Class: 162
- Third Class: 262
- Plus 40 open berthing areas
|
| Crew: | 860[1] |
RMS Titanic was the
largest passenger steamship in the world when she set off on her
maiden voyage from
Southampton,
England, to
New York City on 10 April 1912. Four days into the crossing, at 23:40 on 14 April 1912, she struck an
iceberg and sank at 2:20 the following morning, resulting in the deaths of 1,517 people in one of the deadliest
peacetime maritime disasters in history.
An
Olympic-class passenger liner,
RMS Titanic was owned by the
White Star Line and constructed at the
Harland and Wolff shipyard in
Belfast,
Ireland. She set sail for New York City with 2,227 people on board. The high casualty rate when the ship sank was due in part to the fact that, although complying with the regulations of the time, the ship carried lifeboats for only 1,178 people. A disproportionate number of men died due to the
women and children first protocol that was followed.
Titanic was designed by some of the most experienced engineers, and used some of the most advanced technologies available at the time. It was a great shock to many that, despite the extensive safety features,
Titanic sank, and the fact that it sank on its maiden voyage added to the particularly ironic nature of the tragedy. The frenzy on the part of the
media about
Titanic's famous victims, the legends about the sinking, the resulting changes to
maritime law, and the discovery of the
wreck have contributed to the interest in
Titanic.
Construction
Titanic was built at the
Harland and Wolff shipyard in
Belfast, in the
UK, and designed to compete with the rival
Cunard Line's Lusitania and
Mauretania.
Titanic, along with her
Olympic-class sisters,
Olympic and the soon-to-be-built
Britannic (which was to be called
Gigantic at first), were intended to be the largest, most luxurious ships ever to operate. The designers were
Lord Pirrie,
[8] a director of both Harland and Wolff and White Star,
naval architect Thomas Andrews, Harland and Wolff's construction manager and head of their design department,
[9] and Alexander Carlisle, the shipyard's chief draughtsman and general manager.
[10] Carlisle's responsibilities included the decorations, the equipment and all general arrangements, including the implementation of an efficient lifeboat
davit design. Carlisle would leave the project in 1910, before the ships were launched, when he became a shareholder in
Welin Davit & Engineering Company Ltd, the firm making the davits.
[11]
Size comparison with the
Airbus A380, a bus, a car, and an average-sized human
Construction of RMS
Titanic, funded by the American
J.P. Morgan and his
International Mercantile Marine Co., began on 31 March 1909.
Titanic's
hull was
launched on 31 May 1911, and her outfitting was completed by 31 March the following year. Her length overall was 882 feet 9 inches (269.1 m), the moulded breadth 92 feet 0 inches (28.0 m),
[12] the tonnage 46,328
GRT, and the height from the water line to the boat deck of 59 feet (18 m). She was equipped with two
reciprocating four-
cylinder, triple-expansion
steam engines and one low-pressure
Parsons turbine, each driving a
propeller. There were 29 boilers fired by 159 coal burning furnaces that made possible a top speed of 23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph). Only three of the four 62 feet (19 m)
funnels were functional: the fourth, which served only for ventilation, was added to make the ship look more impressive. The ship could carry a total of 3,547 passengers and crew.
Features
The first-class Grand Staircase aboard
Olympic Titanic surpassed all her rivals in luxury and opulence. The First-class section had an on-board swimming pool, a gymnasium, a
squash court,
Turkish bath,
Electric bath and a Verandah Cafe.
First-class common rooms were adorned with ornate wood panelling, expensive furniture and other decorations. In addition, the
Café Parisien offered cuisine for the first-class passengers, with a sunlit veranda fitted with trellis decorations.
[13] There were libraries and barber shops in both the first and second-class.
[14] The third class general room had pine panelling and sturdy teak furniture.
[15] The ship incorporated technologically advanced features for the period. She had three electric elevators in first class and one in second class. She had also an extensive electrical subsystem with steam-powered
generators and ship-wide wiring feeding electric lights and two
Marconi radios, including a powerful 1,500-watt set manned by two operators working in shifts, allowing constant contact and the transmission of many passenger messages.
[16] First-class passengers paid a hefty fee for such amenities. The most expensive one-way trans-Atlantic passage was £875 (£64,204 as of 2011),
[17] or $4,375 ($99,237 as of 2011),
[18].
Lifeboats
For her maiden voyage,
Titanic carried a total of 20 lifeboats of three different varieties:
[19]
- Lifeboats 1 and 2: emergency wooden cutters: 25'2" long by 7'2" wide by 3'2" deep; capacity 326.6 cubic feet (9.25 m3) or 40 people.[20]
- Lifeboats 3 to 16: wooden lifeboats: 30' long by 9'1" wide by 4' deep; capacity 655.2 cubic feet (18.55 m3) or 65 people.[20]
- Lifeboats A, B, C and D: Englehardt "collapsible" lifeboats: 27'5" long by 8' wide by 3' deep; capacity 376.6 cubic feet (10.66 m3) or 47 people.[20]
The lifeboats were predominantly stowed in chocks on the boat deck, connected to the falls of the davits. All of the lifeboats, including the collapsibles, were placed on the ship by the giant gantry crane at Belfast. Those on the starboard side were odd-numbered 1–15 from bow to stern, while those on the port side were even-numbered 2–16 from bow to stern. The emergency cutters (lifeboats 1 and 2) were kept swung out, hanging from the davits, ready for immediate use while collapsible lifeboats C and D were stowed on the boat deck immediately in-board of boats 1 and 2 respectively. Collapsible lifeboats A and B were stored on the roof of the officers' quarters, on either side of number 1 funnel. However there were no davits mounted on the officers' quarters to lower collapsibles A and B and they weighed a considerable amount empty. During the sinking, lowering collapsibles A and B proved difficult as it was first necessary to slide the boats on timbers and/or oars down to the boat deck. During this procedure, collapsible B capsized and subsequently floated off the ship upside down.
[20]
At the design stage Carlisle suggested that
Titanic use a new, larger type of
davit, manufactured by the Welin Davit & Engineering Co Ltd, each of which could handle four lifeboats. Sixteen sets of these davits were installed, giving
Titanic the ability to carry 64
[21] wooden lifeboats—a total capacity of over 4,000 people, compared with
Titanic's total carrying capacity of about 3,600 passengers and crew. However, the White Star Line, while agreeing to the new davits, decided that only 16 wooden lifeboats (16 being the minimum required by the
Board of Trade, based on
Titanic's projected tonnage) would be carried (there were also four folding lifeboats, called collapsibles), which could accommodate only 1,178 people (33% of
Titanic's total capacity). At the time, the Board of Trade's regulations stated that British vessels over 10,000 tons must carry 16 lifeboats with a capacity of 5,500
cubic feet (160 m
3), plus enough capacity in rafts and floats for 75% (or 50% in case of a vessel with watertight bulkheads) of that in the lifeboats. Therefore, the White Star Line actually provided more lifeboat accommodation than was legally required.
[22]
The regulations had made no extra provision for larger ships since 1894, when the largest passenger ship under consideration was the
Cunard Line's
Lucania, only 13,000 tons. Sir Alfred Chalmers, nautical adviser to the Board of Trade from 1896 to 1911, had considered the matter "from time to time", but because he thought that experienced sailors would have to be carried "uselessly" aboard ship for no other purpose than lowering and manning lifeboats, and the difficulty he anticipated in getting away a greater number than 16 in any emergency, he "did not consider it necessary to increase [our scale]".
[23]
Carlisle told the official inquiry that he had discussed the matter with
J. Bruce Ismay, White Star's Managing Director, but in his evidence Ismay denied that he had ever heard of this, nor did he recollect noticing such provision in the plans of the ship he had inspected.
[11][24] Ten days before the maiden voyage
Axel Welin, the maker of
Titanic's lifeboat davits, had announced that his machinery had been installed because the vessel's owners were aware of forthcoming changes in official regulations, but Harold Sanderson, vice-president of the International Mercantile Marine and former general manager of the White Star Line, denied that this had been the intention.
[25]
Pumps
Titanic was fitted with five
ballast and
bilge pumps, used for trimming the vessel, and three bilge pumps.
[26] Two 10-inch (250 mm) main ballast pipes ran the length of the ship and valves controlling the distribution of water were operated from the bulkhead deck, above.
[27] The total discharge capacity from all eight pumps operating together was 1,700 tons or 425,000 gallons per hour.
[26] During the disaster, the engineers reported that the pumps succeeded in slowing the flooding of No. 6 boiler room in the first ten minutes after the collision. The pumps also kept pace with the flooding on No. 5 boiler room. This does not indicate that the vessel could have maintained buoyancy indefinitely, but as long as the pumps had steam to power them, the ship could slow down the flooding.
Titanic could not founder until these sections were flooded and the inrush of water overwhelmed the pumps. This did not happen until 23:50 pm on the night of the sinking.
[28]
Comparisons with the Olympic
Olympic and
Titanic under construction
Titanic closely resembled her older sister
Olympic. Although she enclosed more space and therefore had a larger gross register tonnage, the hull was almost the same length as
Olympic's. Two of the most noticeable differences were that half of
Titanic's forward promenade A-Deck (below the boat deck) was enclosed against outside weather, and her B-Deck configuration was different from
Olympic's. As built
Olympic did not have an equivalent of
Titanic's
Café Parisien: the feature was not added until 1913. Some of the flaws found on
Olympic, such as the creaking of the aft expansion joint, were corrected on
Titanic. The skid lights that provided night time illumination on A-deck were round, while on
Olympic they were oval.
Titanic's
wheelhouse was made narrower and longer than
Olympic's.
[29] These, and other modifications, made
Titanic 1,004 gross register tons larger than
Olympic and thus the largest active ship in the world during her maiden voyage in April 1912.
Ship history
Sea trials
Titanic's sea trials took place shortly after she was fitted out at Harland & Wolff shipyard. The trials were originally scheduled for 10.00am on Monday, 1 April, just nine days before she was due to leave Southampton on her maiden voyage, but poor weather conditions forced the trials to be postponed until the following day.
[3]
Aboard
Titanic were 78 stokers, greasers and firemen, and 41 members of crew. No domestic staff appear to have been aboard. Representatives of various companies travelled on
Titanic's sea trials, including Harold A. Sanderson of I.M.M and Thomas Andrews and Edward Wilding of Harland and Wolff. Bruce Ismay and Lord Pirrie were too ill to attend. Jack Phillips and Harold Bride served as radio operators, and performed fine-tuning of the Marconi equipment. Mr Carruthers, a surveyor from the Board of Trade, was also present to see that everything worked, and that the ship was fit to carry passengers. After the trial, he signed an 'Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew', valid for twelve months, which deemed the ship sea-worthy.
[30]
Pada dasarnya, anakan lele yang dipelihara tidak akan sakit jika mempunyai ketahanan tubuh yang tinggi. Anakan lele menjadi sakit lebih banyak disebabkan oleh kondisi lingkungan (air) yang jelek. Kondisi air yang jelek sangat mendorong tumbuhnya berbagai bibit penyakit baik yang berupa protozoa, jamur, bakteri dan lain-lain. Maka dalam menejemen kesehatan pembenihan lele, yang lebih penting dilakukan adalah penjagaan kondisi air dan pemberian nutrisi yang tinggi. Dalam kedua hal itulah, peranan TON dan POC NASA sangat besar. Namun apabila anakan lele terlanjur terserang penyakit, dianjurkan untuk melakukan pengobatan yang sesuai. Penyakit-penyakit yang disebabkan oleh infeksi protozoa, bakteri dan jamur dapat diobati dengan formalin, larutan PK (Kalium Permanganat) atau garam dapur. Penggunaan obat tersebut haruslah hati-hati dan dosis yang digunakan juga harus sesuai.